Running Records: Purpose, Use, and Analysis in Reading Instruction
Running records are a versatile assessment tool that can be used with guided reading texts and decodable texts. While they are traditionally associated with guided reading within balanced literacy frameworks, running records can also provide valuable instructional insight when used with phonics-based instruction and decodable texts.
This guide explains what running records are, how they function in different instructional contexts, how to calculate accuracy and fluency, and how to analyze miscues to inform instruction.
Images and data shown on this page are for educational reference purposes.
Table of Contents
1. What Are Running Records?
A running record is an observational assessment used to capture a student’s oral reading behaviors. It records what a reader says and does while reading aloud using standardized coding conventions.
Running records are:
-
An observation tool, not a test
-
Used to determine reading processes, instructional needs, and placement
-
Paired with a comprehension check
A miscue is any observed oral reading response that differs from the expected text. Miscue analysis includes both quantitative data (accuracy, error rate) and qualitative analysis (strategy use).
2. Running Records in Guided Reading
In guided reading, running records are used to assess:
-
Reading level
-
Accuracy and fluency
-
Comprehension
-
Use of multiple reading strategies
Leveled texts typically contain a mix of high-frequency words and varied phonetic patterns. Running records help teachers:
-
Select appropriate instructional levels
-
Track progress over time
-
Identify patterns such as self-corrections and substitutions
3. Running Records With Decodable Texts
Running records can also be used effectively with decodable texts, which are aligned to specific phonics instruction.
In this context, running records help teachers:
-
Evaluate the application of taught phonics skills
-
Measure accuracy and fluency with controlled vocabulary
-
Identify whether students are decoding or guessing
Because decodable texts limit word patterns, guessing based on context is less likely, and decoding behaviors are more visible.
4. Key Differences Between Guided and Decodable Texts
-
Guided Reading: Emphasizes multiple cueing strategies (meaning, syntax, visual)
-
Decodable Texts: Emphasize phonics and accurate decoding
As a result, running records taken from decodable texts focus more heavily on decoding proficiency, while guided reading records capture broader strategy use.
5. Professional Perspective on Phonics and Decodable Texts
As a reading specialist, I no longer teach using predictable texts or the Fountas and Pinnell cueing system. Instruction now centers on explicit phonics and decodable texts.
When students are stuck, the instructional prompt is:
“Sound it out.”
Current research emphasizes that effective reading instruction prioritizes accurate decoding. While meaning and syntax support comprehension, students benefit most when they are taught to rely on phonics to read unfamiliar words rather than guessing from pictures or context. For further research and discussion, listen to the Sold a Story podcast.
6. Components of a Running Record
A running record includes:
-
The oral reading record
-
A comprehension check
After the reading:
-
Accuracy, error, and self-correction rates are calculated
-
Data is used to determine reading level and instructional needs
A running record calculator can be used to streamline calculations.
7. Calculating Accuracy, Error, and Self-Correction Rates
Accuracy Rate
(Number of words – uncorrected miscues) × 100 ÷ total words
Example:
218 words – 9 errors = 209
209 × 100 ÷ 218 = 96%
Error Rate
Total words ÷ total errors = error ratio
Example:
99 ÷ 8 = 12
Error rate = 1:12
Self-Correction Rate
(Errors + self-corrections) ÷ self-corrections
Example:
(8 + 3) ÷ 3 = 3.6
Self-correction rate = 1:4
8. Reading Levels
Independent Level
-
95–100% accuracy
-
90% comprehension
-
No more than 1 in 20 words is difficult
Instructional Level
-
90–94% accuracy
-
At least 75% comprehension
-
Teacher support needed
Frustration Level
-
Below 90% accuracy
-
More than 1 in 10 words are difficult
-
Instruction should stop
9. Types of Miscues and What They Indicate
-
Self-Correction: Not an error unless corrected to a wrong word
-
Repetition: Not an error; may indicate uncertainty
-
Insertion: May or may not affect meaning
-
Omission: May indicate tracking or vocabulary issues
-
Reversal: Common in early readers
-
Substitution: Analyze meaning and logic
-
Has to Be Told: The reader cannot proceed independently
-
Pauses: Not errors; excessive pauses affect meaning
-
Total Confusion: Count as one error per attempt
10. Words Per Minute (WPM)
Calculation:
Words read ÷ seconds × 60 = WPM
Example:
207 words ÷ 205 seconds × 60 ≈ 60 WPM
Oral Reading Fluency Norms
This table is from the DRA2 manual and shows the MINIMUM number of words per minute acceptable to proceed to the next level.
This table shows approximate percentile ranks for correct words per minute at 3 points during the school year!
| Grade | %ile | Fall WCPM* | Winter WCPM* | Spring WCPM* |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 90 | 97 | 116 | |
| 75 | 59 | 91 | ||
| 50 | 29 | 60 | ||
| 25 | 16 | 34 | ||
| 10 | 9 | 18 | ||
| 2 | 90 | 111 | 131 | 148 |
| 75 | 84 | 109 | 124 | |
| 50 | 50 | 84 | 100 | |
| 25 | 36 | 59 | 72 | |
| 10 | 23 | 35 | 43 | |
| 3 | 90 | 134 | 161 | 166 |
| 75 | 104 | 137 | 139 | |
| 50 | 83 | 97 | 112 | |
| 25 | 59 | 79 | 91 | |
| 10 | 40 | 62 | 63 | |
| 4 | 90 | 153 | 168 | 184 |
| 75 | 125 | 143 | 160 | |
| 50 | 94 | 120 | 133 | |
| 25 | 75 | 95 | 105 | |
| 10 | 60 | 71 | 83 | |
| 5 | 90 | 179 | 183 | 195 |
| 75 | 153 | 160 | 169 | |
| 50 | 121 | 133 | 146 | |
| 25 | 87 | 109 | 119 | |
| 10 | 64 | 84 | 102 | |
| 6 | 90 | 185 | 195 | 204 |
| 75 | 159 | 166 | 173 | |
| 50 | 132 | 145 | 146 | |
| 25 | 112 | 116 | 122 | |
| 10 | 89 | 91 | 91 |
WCPM is words correct per minute.
(Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2017)
11. Analyzing Miscues Using M, S, and V
You can get a free running records form here.
Miscue analysis examines error patterns, not isolated mistakes.
-
Meaning (M): Does the miscue preserve meaning?
-
Structure (S): Is the grammar correct?
-
Visual (V): Is the word visually similar (≥50%)?
Example analysis may show reliance on meaning over visual cues or vice versa. Learn more about what errors mean.
12. Sample Miscue Analysis
The following examples illustrate how to analyze miscues using Meaning (M), Structure (S), and Visual (V) cues during a running record. These samples show how different reading behaviors reveal the strategies a student is using while reading.
Example 1
Text:
That evening, the boy went for a walk.
Student reads: night instead of evening
-
Meaning: Retained
-
Structure: Retained
-
Visual: No visual similarity
Code: Circle M and S only
Example 2
Text:
I’m wearing shorts and a bush shirt.
Student reads: brush instead of bush
-
Visual: More than 50% visually similar
-
Structure: Grammatically correct
-
Meaning: Changed
Code: Circle V and S
Example 3
Text:
Nobody tries out concoctions on themselves.
Student reads: congcontcong instead of concoctions
-
Visual: The reader relied on visual information
-
Meaning: Not retained
-
Structure: Not retained
Code: Circle V only
This nonsense word indicates that meaning and syntax were not used.
Example 4
Text:
Not only was it bright purple…
Student behavior: Inserts the word “a” after it
-
Meaning: Retained
-
Structure: Retained
-
Visual: Incorrect
Code: Circle M and S, not V
Example 5
Text:
No blade of grass grew in all its concrete playground.
Student reads: concentrate instead of concrete
-
Visual: Used
-
Meaning: Lost
-
Structure: Not grammatically correct
Code: Circle V only
Where and How to Record M, S, and V
When a child makes an error during oral reading:
-
Record the miscue in full on the running record form
-
In the second column from the right, write M, S, and V next to the sentence
-
Circle the cue(s) the child used based on the miscue
If the Child Self-Corrects
-
Use the far right-hand column
-
Write M, S, and V next to the sentence
-
Circle the cue(s) used for the self-correction
A self-corrected word is not counted as an error unless the child self-corrects to an incorrect word.
Optional Use of M, S, and V Coding
Teachers may choose to:
-
Administer a running record without coding Meaning, Structure, and Visual cues
-
Still calculate accuracy, error rate, and self-correction rate
Even without M, S, and V analysis, the running record can still be used to:
-
Determine reading level
-
Track progress
-
Make instructional placement decisions
13. Retelling Rubric Overview
From Waltham Public Schools:
-
Independent Fiction: 14–15 points
-
Independent Nonfiction: 11–12 points
14. Observations to Record
Teachers observe:
-
Cue integration and cross-checking
-
Self-monitoring and problem-solving
-
Fluency, expression, and confidence
-
Accuracy vs. meaning balance
-
Strategy growth over time
These observations describe the child’s reading processing system.
15. Administration Rules and Best Practices
-
Explain the purpose clearly
-
Use unfamiliar text (~100 words)
-
Allow picture walks and predictions
-
Record miscues accurately
-
Maintain a neutral observer role
-
Use quiet, interruption-free settings
-
Collect records over time
Miscue analysis is not recommended for beginner readers.
16. Frequently Asked Questions
What should teachers observe during a running record?
During a running record, teachers observe how a child processes text, not just whether the words are read correctly. Observations focus on how the reader integrates meaning, structure, and visual information while reading.
Marie Clay refers to this process as cross-checking, in which the reader verifies one source of information against another to confirm accuracy and meaning.
What do these observations reveal about a reader?
The answers to these questions describe a child’s reading processing system. They reveal whether the reader is using internal strategies, including:
Self-Monitoring
The reader checks whether the reading:
-
looks right
-
sounds right
-
makes sense
This process is automatic and relies on meaning, structure, and visual information working together.
Searching
The reader actively looks for information to solve problems by using:
-
meaning
-
syntax
-
visual and phonics-based cues
Self-Correcting
The reader notices mismatches and searches further to find a precise fit.
What rules should teachers follow when administering a running record?
-
Explain the purpose: observing reading behaviors and strategies
-
Use unfamiliar text, approximately 100 words
-
Discuss the title and author
-
Allow a picture walk and predictions
-
For chapter books, have the student briefly summarize the prior reading
-
Remind the student that they will retell the text afterward
-
Thank the student and offer a compliment after reading
-
Record the retelling yourself
-
Discuss observed strategies, set goals, and provide feedback
-
Do not use miscue analysis with beginner readers
-
Allow student choice when possible
-
Conduct assessments in a quiet, interruption-free space
-
Audio recording may be helpful for later review
-
Photocopy the text and record miscues directly on it
-
Record each miscue in full
-
Remain a neutral observer
How are repeated miscues counted?
-
If the same miscue occurs repeatedly for a proper noun (e.g., Mario for Maria), count it as one error
-
If the substitution changes (Mario, Mary, Matt), count each as an error
There is:
-
No penalty for attempts that lead to a correct word
-
No penalty for broken words (e.g., a-way)
-
If a child skips a line, each word counts as an error unless the pages were stuck together.
Why collect running records over time?
Running records should be collected regularly to identify patterns in reading behavior. Miscue analysis helps teachers understand whether errors are minor and meaning-preserving or indicate a breakdown in comprehension.
Analyzing these patterns informs the next instructional steps and supports reading growth.
17. Summary and Recommended Frequency
Running records and miscue analysis are powerful diagnostic tools that reveal how readers process text. When analyzed over time, miscues guide instructional planning and support comprehension-focused reading development.
Suggested Frequency (Reading A-Z):
-
Early Emergent: every 2–4 weeks
-
Emergent: every 4–6 weeks
-
Early Fluent: every 6–8 weeks
-
Fluent: every 8–10 weeks
18. References
References
-
Reading A-Z: “About Running Records”
-
Fountas & Pinnell (1996)
Return to HOME
Related Resources
Optional Editable Document
For an optional editable document of this How to Take and Analyze a Running Record page, please visit Instant Downloads.
This page was last updated on January 10, 2026.